iv) The setting of homework was related to higher student achievement in
6 out of 8 studies.
Under the heading "student traits", they found that
v) SES was significant in 10 out of 13 studies.
vi) Malnutrition, body weight and health were significant in 8 out of 11
studies (but note that this is highly correlated with SES).
vii) The more repeating the lower the score, in 7 out of 8 studies.
viii) Kindergarten attendance was related to achievement 6 or 12 years
later, in 3 out of 4 studies.
An example of research from a single country which is worth strong consideration
because of its breadth of methodology and content is that of Vulliamy (1987, p 217),
who found persuasive quantitative evidence of the existence of school effects on
secondary school examination results in Papua New Guinea, and used qualitative case
studies in an attempt to identify significant factors. According to Vulliamy, these factors
are
1) quality of teaching
2) style of school administration
3) extra assistance for weak students
4) levels of staff morale
5) the provision of basic facilities (such as water and electricity)
The importance of the headteacher is paramount.
It is now widely accepted that schools do have important effects. The
research suggests that such effects are related not to resource-based school
input factors, but rather to school-process factors that are more elusively
categorised as features of school climate or school culture. (Vulliamy,
1987, p217)
Another single country study was conducted in Zimbabwe by Riddell & Nyagura (1991).
Their work was based on a secondary school survey and multi-level analysis. They
found that student achievement is higher when schools have a greater availability of
textbooks, a larger proportion of trained teachers and teachers who have taught at that
school for a longer period of time.