192
is allocated in demarcations 20-50 hectares to those people with sufficient capital to invest in
boreholes themselves; applicants in such cases must present confirmation of having 1 million kwacha
to demonstrate the means to develop the land. Schemes are provided with schools and other facilities
to attract people from urban areas (according to one official, life must be made better than in a typical
village or people have no incentive to come or stay). Schemes have had a less than remarkable
experience with acquiring 14-year titles to land. Applications are often submitted only to become lost
in the system; some files are lost permanently. Inheritances, subdivisions, and transfers have become
important issues in many schemes—issues that the department feels inadequate in addressing given the
current land policy.
VII. Access by women and minority groups
The achievement of a satisfactory level of self-sufficiency in the production of staple foods has
been a long-term goal of the Zambian government. In its Fourth National Development Plan,
1987-91, the basic strategy outlined for achieving this goal was that preferential treatment would be
given to small-scale farmers, in line with their greater number, their development potential, and their
relatively efficient use of scarce foreign exchange resources.
The majority of small-scale farmers are women, and, in the same Development Plan, there
was evidence of the increasing recognition of their development role by the government. The plan
contained a full chapter on women in development, including agriculture. Empirical research during
the 1970s to 1980s also gives recognition to the important role that women in Zambia play in
agriculture.'
Despite this broad recognition, there is little evidence to suggest that women enjoyed equal
rights to development assistance in the agricultural sector. To the contrary, there is some evidence
suggesting that they did not.
As mentioned earlier, the first postindependence government chose the cooperative movement
as a means of promoting rural development. A program to encourage the formation of cooperative
societies began in 1965 with emphasis on the communal cooperatives. A number of marketing
cooperatives based on individual farms were, however, also organized.
Rules governing the formation of cooperative societies indicated that any group of ten people
could register as a cooperative to carry out a wide range of activities. For agricultural cooperatives
where members ran the farm together, the government provided an incentive package that included
seasonal and medium-term loans and subsidies for land clearing and research and extension advice on
improved production techniques. No food crops could be grown on the farm and incentives for cash
crop production were given only to the head of household, the man, and only he was allowed to be
a member. Women were therefore denied the opportunity to benefit from the formation of agricultural
cooperatives and to get the incentive package for supporting their agricultural ventures. Instead, they
and their children were expected to grow food crops unassisted, outside of the schemes. 21
20 See Allan (1984); Blake (1984); Chenoweth (1984); Due and Mudenda (1984); and Gaobepe and Mwenda (1980).
21 Chilivumbo (1982); Keller (1984); Mutamba (1982).